10. Steps of Encoding: Some encoding occurs automatically but other encoding requires effort. Automatic processing is the unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as world meanings. Effortful processing is encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Rehearsal, the conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage, can help boost one’s memory on information that requires effortful processing.
11. Ebbinghaus’ retention curve: Ebbinghaus created an experiment where he recited syllables and repeated them several times. Then the next day, he tried to recall the items and remembered only some of them, but they were not entirely forgotten. He created a graph that showed the relationship between the time in minutes taken to relearn a list on day two and the number of repetitions of list on day one. By looking at the curve, it showed that the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning.
12. Spacing effect: This is the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. The spacing effect shows that spreading out learning over a longer period of team will enhance retention and cramming will not help with study because one will forget quickly.
13. What we encode: When processing verbal information for storage, we usually encode its meaning. We usually remember things but not as exactly as they were. We hear or read about a situation and then our minds construct a model of it. For example, a student might remember the lecture notes but not the actual lecture.
14. Kinds of encoding: There are three types of encoding, visual encoding, acoustic encoding, and semantic encoding. Visual encoding is the encoding of picture image; acoustic encoding is the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words; and semantic encoding which is the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
15. Levels of processing: Processing a word deeply, by its meaning or semantic encoding, produces better recognition of it at a later time than does shallow processing. When a student reads a paragraph without meaningful context, they often forget. When the paragraph was paraphrased and related to something else more meaningful, the students remembered a lot more of the paragraph.
16. Imagery and memory: Mental pictures boost one’s memory because memory for concrete nouns is aided by encoding them both semantically and visually.
17. Mnemonics: Mnemonics are memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Mnemonic devices depend on the memorability of visual images and of information that is organized into chunks.
18. Ways to organize information for encoding: Chunking, or organizing items into familiar, manageable unites occurs automatically, helps us recall information more easily. Another mnemonic technique that helps us remember information is to use acronyms. Another way to retrieve information efficiently is to organize the knowledge into hierarchies. A hierarchy is used when broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts to help one retain more information.
19. Memory Trace: Information first enters the memory system through the senses. We register and briefly store visual images through iconic memory and sounds through echoic memory.
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