Neurons, or nerve cells, send information from the brain to everywhere in the body. The messages are what make us able to perform our simplest to our most complex actions. A basic neuron consists of a cell body surrounded by dendrites, which are used to receive messages from other cells. A long, sausage-like, structure extends from the cell body and ends with the terminal branches of the axon, which communicate with other neurons or cells. The process of neural communication begins with the signal from the communication through another nerve or part of the body. The dendrites receive neurological messages from other parts of the body and sends the electrical signal through the cell body, down the axon, to the axon terminal. The gap between the pre synaptic neuron, or the neuron sending the signal, and the post synaptic neuron, or the receiving neuron, is called the synapse. In order for the message to get from the pre synaptic neuron to the post synaptic neuron, the axon will fill with electrically charged ions. Once the axon terminal is full of negatively charged ions, an opening will release them and in will come positively charged ions that were on the outside of the axon. This reaction causes the same thing to happen between the next to axons and continues to do so down a chain of axons. While this is occurring, the axons return to having negative on the inside and positive on the outside. The message electrically travels down to the axon terminal and stimulates neurotransmitters to release. It travels from the pre synaptic neuron, through the synapse, to attach itself to the post synaptic neuron. Depending on which type of receptor the neurotransmitter was made to connect to, the same process will occur again, or it will end there.
2. the impact of neurotransmitters:
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released from the trigger of a message that reaches the axon terminal. They are made to connect to only one particular receptor. A neurotransmitter may be rejected and never attach to a receptor. If this occurs, they may only be picked up my the pre synaptic neuron that sent it. When the neurotransmitter attaches to the receptor, two different things may occur depending on the receptor. If the receptor was excitatory then the message will continue on and it will trigger the same process to occur to send the message on to another neuron. If the receptor is inhibitory, the message is not to be continued. Different neurotransmitters may influence our behaviors, thoughts, or emotions. For example, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine has the major function in learning and memory. It can also paralyze muscles and used for purposes such as botox.
3. impact of drugs/chemicals on neural communication:
With the presence of drugs, neurotransmissions can be blocked from being sent to it's receptor. If the drug molecule is an agonist, it excites and it is similar enough the the neurotransmitter to have the same effects on the receiving neuron. A drug molecule that is an antagonist inhibits. It is similar enough to the neurotransmitter to block it and take place in the receptor site, but will not stimulate the receptor.
4. nervous system (parts, functions, impact):
The nervous system is the body's primary information system, which is made up of neurons communicating with other neurons. It contains all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. Three types of neurons travel through the nervous system. Sensory neurons send information that travels from the body's tissues and sensory organs to the brain and spinal chord, where the information is processed. With this process, another type of neuron called interneurons allow internal communication. Through the third type of neurons in the nervous system, motor neurons, instructions are sent to the body's tissues. The nervous system consists of millions of sensory neurons and motor neurons and billions of interneurons.
5. peripheral nervous system (parts, functions, impact):
The peripheral nervous system contain the sense receptors, muscles and glands that connects the central nervous system with the body. It is made up of the somatic and autonomic parts. Movements of the skeletal muscles are controlled by the somatic nervous system while the glands and muscles of internal organs are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Within the autonomic system is the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system arouses one to take defensive action and the parasympathetic nervous system calms one by decreasing one's heartbeat.
6. the central nervous system (parts, functions, impact):
The central nervous system is from the brain down to the spinal chord. It allows humans to be human and to think, feel, and act. The spinal chord connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain. The neural pathways control our reflexes, or out automatic responses. An example of such is the pain reflex. When one feels a flame, one jerks his or hand back as a reflex. This can be explained by neural activity that is excited and through sensory neurons, travels to interneurons to the spinal chord. The interneurons react and cause motor neurons to more one's arm. The central nervous system allows the brain to be in contact with the body.
7. endrocrine system:
The endrocrine system is the system of glands in the body that consist of endocrine secretions and functions to regulate the body and metabolic activity.
8) Limbic System: doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebal hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and agression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus
9) methods of researching the brain: Clinical observations- This is the oldest method of studying the brain-mind connections and it includes oberving the effects of brain diseases and injuries. In their observations, they started realizing that damange to one side of the brain often causes numbness on the body's opposite side which suggests that the right side of the body is wired to the brain's left side.
Recording the Brain's Electrical Activity- an EEG or electroencephalogram is used which is an amplified tracing of such waves by an instrument called an electroencephalograph. By presenting a stimulus repeatedly and having a computer filter our brain activity unrelated to the stimulus, one can identify the electrical wave evoked by the stimulus.
Neuroimaging Techniques: A CT scan and PET scans are used. They allow humans to see inside the brain without lesioning it. A CT scan examines the brain by taking x-ray photographs the can reveal brain damage. The PET scan can depict brain activity by showing each brain area's consumption of its chemical fuel. Also, people can use MRI scans which aligns the spinning atoms and can help in reasearch about the brain.
10) Parts of the brain: Frontal Lobe- has Motor cortex (controls voluntary movement)
Parietal Lobe- has sensory cortex (processes bodily senses)
Occipital Lobe- regulates vision
Temporal Lobe- regulates hearing
11) plasticity: brian's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
12) the divided brain: Left hemisphere- mathematics, language, logical, reasoning
Right hemisphere: perceptual tasks, musical, artistic, emotion, face recognition, and copying info
13) nature vs. nurture: a longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
14) genes/DNA: biochemical unites of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing of a protein
15. Evolutionary Psychology- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind based on the priciples of natural selection.**15- 21 Briana
16. Natural Selection- the principle that amoung the range of inherited trait variation, those lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding gernerations.
17. Sexuality/Gender- Gender differences in attitudes extend to differences in behavior. The male gender has been proven to have a stronger sex drive. Examples include men are more likely to have more "hit-and-run" sex, The experiment the was done at Florida State University, and the fact that men more often then women attribute a woman's friendliness to sexual interest.
18. Behavior Genetics- The Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
19. Twins (importance of study)- Twins that are separated at birth help to evaluate what role environment plays on behavior and personality. Many separated twins have been brought together to find that they share many similarities such as personality, abilities, attitudes, interest, and fears. However Separated twins share the same environment for the first nine months of their lives, therefore, they share appearance, and the responses it evokes.
20. Adoption Studies- Adoptee's traits bear more similarities to their biological parents then their caregiving adoptive parents. Studies show that, although the personalities of adopted children do not much resemble those of their adoptive parents, adoption does indeed matter. This idea can easily be proven by parents influencing their children's attitudes, values, manners, faith, and politics.
21. Temperament/ Heritability- Temperament includes a person's characteristic emational reactivity and intensity. "Difficult" babies have shown to be more irritable, intense, and unpredictable when it comes to feeding and sleeping; On the other hand, "Easy" babies have shown to be cheerful, relaxed, and predictable when it comes to feeding and sleeping. Heritability is defined as the portion of variation amoung individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
22) Genes and the environment: Genes and the environment are not two competing factors that influence a person behaviors; they actually go hand in hand. A person has certain traits that are built into their genes, and then these traits can influence the type of environment that person is in. For example, if it is in a child’s genetic makeup to be musically inclined, as they grow up they will most likely spend their time around music and musical people. This type of environment will make the child to be a more outgoing and out spoken person. This shows how genes can effect environment which decides the way a person acts and thinks.23) Molecular genetics: Molecular genetics is a subfield of biology which focuses on how genes function and their molecular structure. This has allowed psychologists to learn more about what a child will be like while they are still in the womb. It can be determined if the child is at risk for certain diseases and researchers are working to find the genes that are linked to other diseases, like depression. With these advances though comes an ethics debate: if they can determine which genes cause certain traits then can they be altered to produce “perfect children”. If everyone only chose desirable traits for their children, then it could deprive the world of individuals.
24) Parental influence/interference: While it may seem that parents have a big influence on what their children turn out like, but that is not necessarily the case. Genes are a bigger influence, though a trait may seem like it comes from a parent, it may actually be genes. For example if twin girls are raised separately from each other, they may both be very even-tempered. One sister may say that this is because her father always kept his emotions in line. The other sister may say it is because her father is very short-tempered and she did not want to act like that. When the real reason is that is was in their genes to be very in control of their emotions. If parents had a major influence in their children, then all of their kids would be exactly alike. This is not the case though while siblings may have some similar traits, overall they are all different people.
25) Peer (group) influence: From a young age it is taught to not give in to peer pressure, but this can be a hard thing to do. A person’s peers may play an even bigger role in who they become then family and parenting does. Children want to fit in and many aim to become “popular” to do this they usually take on the characteristics of their peers. For example, if a child is brought up in a house where they are taught that stealing is wrong; but if the “cool” kids in school are stealing the child will be more likely to go out and steal something so that they can fit in with the other kids.
26) Culture: Culture is something that varies all over the world. No countries are exactly alike with their rules of etiquette and what is socially acceptable. To one country it may be normal to dine on guinea pig, while in another country guinea pigs are considered pets. This can leads to problems when different cultures come together. If someone is not familiar with the others culture, some of the things that they say or do may seem odd or insulting when that is only the way that person was raised. Culture can also have an effect on the way children are raised. In some cultures it is normal for the baby to stay with its mother or family all the time, while in other cultures the baby will be left with a nanny or at daycare so the parents can go to work. Some children will get send away to boarding school once they are old enough, while some go to public school, or some will learn a trade from one of their parents.
27) Variations over time: As time has passed the world has changed immensely; some of these changes have been good, but not all of them. Women no longer are looked down upon and treated like they are not as good as men. They can go out and get jobs and work just as men do. Technology has allowed for easy communication for people all over the world and the internet has opened up an endless world of opportunities, like communication, shopping, and research. It also has to be taken into consideration that some of these things have caused parents to work more, families to spend less time together, and more marriages to end in divorce. There are also more kids getting arrested and taking their own lives. Memes are ideas, fashions, trends, inventions that are ever changing. They are similar to genes because with natural selection certain genes try and survive, it is always a goal for a meme to be passes along throughout a culture and become popular.
28) The nature and nurture of gender: With gender nurture builds off of nature. All humans have some things in common, like sweating, bleeding then healing if they get cut, and needing food and water to live. The main difference between men and women is one chromosome, women have XX and men have XY, one little thing creates a big difference in a person. Once a person has their gender they have a typical role that their gender follows. Men are generally the ones to like cars and sports, while women generally like to shop and do their nails. The way someone is raised effects how masculine or feminine that person is. If at a young age a parent only lets their little girl play with dolls and wear dresses, there is a high chance that she will be more feminine then a girl who is raised wearing jeans and a t-shirt and playing with trains more then dolls. Children also learn what is socially acceptable for their gender by being around other people their age. If a boy does not act masculine enough in school the other boys may make fun of him, which in turn may make him try and act less feminine.
**1-7 Sarah
**8-14 Kelly
**15-21 Briana
**22-28 Dani
9) methods of researching the brain: Clinical observations- This is the oldest method of studying the brain-mind connections and it includes oberving the effects of brain diseases and injuries. In their observations, they started realizing that damange to one side of the brain often causes numbness on the body's opposite side which suggests that the right side of the body is wired to the brain's left side.
Recording the Brain's Electrical Activity- an EEG or electroencephalogram is used which is an amplified tracing of such waves by an instrument called an electroencephalograph. By presenting a stimulus repeatedly and having a computer filter our brain activity unrelated to the stimulus, one can identify the electrical wave evoked by the stimulus.
Neuroimaging Techniques: A CT scan and PET scans are used. They allow humans to see inside the brain without lesioning it. A CT scan examines the brain by taking x-ray photographs the can reveal brain damage. The PET scan can depict brain activity by showing each brain area's consumption of its chemical fuel. Also, people can use MRI scans which aligns the spinning atoms and can help in reasearch about the brain.
10) Parts of the brain: Frontal Lobe- has Motor cortex (controls voluntary movement)
Parietal Lobe- has sensory cortex (processes bodily senses)
Occipital Lobe- regulates vision
Temporal Lobe- regulates hearing
11) plasticity: brian's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
12) the divided brain: Left hemisphere- mathematics, language, logical, reasoning
Right hemisphere: perceptual tasks, musical, artistic, emotion, face recognition, and copying info
13) nature vs. nurture: a longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
14) genes/DNA: biochemical unites of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing of a protein
15. Evolutionary Psychology- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind based on the priciples of natural selection.**15- 21 Briana
16. Natural Selection- the principle that amoung the range of inherited trait variation, those lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding gernerations.
17. Sexuality/Gender- Gender differences in attitudes extend to differences in behavior. The male gender has been proven to have a stronger sex drive. Examples include men are more likely to have more "hit-and-run" sex, The experiment the was done at Florida State University, and the fact that men more often then women attribute a woman's friendliness to sexual interest.
18. Behavior Genetics- The Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
19. Twins (importance of study)- Twins that are separated at birth help to evaluate what role environment plays on behavior and personality. Many separated twins have been brought together to find that they share many similarities such as personality, abilities, attitudes, interest, and fears. However Separated twins share the same environment for the first nine months of their lives, therefore, they share appearance, and the responses it evokes.
20. Adoption Studies- Adoptee's traits bear more similarities to their biological parents then their caregiving adoptive parents. Studies show that, although the personalities of adopted children do not much resemble those of their adoptive parents, adoption does indeed matter. This idea can easily be proven by parents influencing their children's attitudes, values, manners, faith, and politics.
21. Temperament/ Heritability- Temperament includes a person's characteristic emational reactivity and intensity. "Difficult" babies have shown to be more irritable, intense, and unpredictable when it comes to feeding and sleeping; On the other hand, "Easy" babies have shown to be cheerful, relaxed, and predictable when it comes to feeding and sleeping. Heritability is defined as the portion of variation amoung individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
22) Genes and the environment: Genes and the environment are not two competing factors that influence a person behaviors; they actually go hand in hand. A person has certain traits that are built into their genes, and then these traits can influence the type of environment that person is in. For example, if it is in a child’s genetic makeup to be musically inclined, as they grow up they will most likely spend their time around music and musical people. This type of environment will make the child to be a more outgoing and out spoken person. This shows how genes can effect environment which decides the way a person acts and thinks.23) Molecular genetics: Molecular genetics is a subfield of biology which focuses on how genes function and their molecular structure. This has allowed psychologists to learn more about what a child will be like while they are still in the womb. It can be determined if the child is at risk for certain diseases and researchers are working to find the genes that are linked to other diseases, like depression. With these advances though comes an ethics debate: if they can determine which genes cause certain traits then can they be altered to produce “perfect children”. If everyone only chose desirable traits for their children, then it could deprive the world of individuals.
24) Parental influence/interference: While it may seem that parents have a big influence on what their children turn out like, but that is not necessarily the case. Genes are a bigger influence, though a trait may seem like it comes from a parent, it may actually be genes. For example if twin girls are raised separately from each other, they may both be very even-tempered. One sister may say that this is because her father always kept his emotions in line. The other sister may say it is because her father is very short-tempered and she did not want to act like that. When the real reason is that is was in their genes to be very in control of their emotions. If parents had a major influence in their children, then all of their kids would be exactly alike. This is not the case though while siblings may have some similar traits, overall they are all different people.
25) Peer (group) influence: From a young age it is taught to not give in to peer pressure, but this can be a hard thing to do. A person’s peers may play an even bigger role in who they become then family and parenting does. Children want to fit in and many aim to become “popular” to do this they usually take on the characteristics of their peers. For example, if a child is brought up in a house where they are taught that stealing is wrong; but if the “cool” kids in school are stealing the child will be more likely to go out and steal something so that they can fit in with the other kids.
26) Culture: Culture is something that varies all over the world. No countries are exactly alike with their rules of etiquette and what is socially acceptable. To one country it may be normal to dine on guinea pig, while in another country guinea pigs are considered pets. This can leads to problems when different cultures come together. If someone is not familiar with the others culture, some of the things that they say or do may seem odd or insulting when that is only the way that person was raised. Culture can also have an effect on the way children are raised. In some cultures it is normal for the baby to stay with its mother or family all the time, while in other cultures the baby will be left with a nanny or at daycare so the parents can go to work. Some children will get send away to boarding school once they are old enough, while some go to public school, or some will learn a trade from one of their parents.
27) Variations over time: As time has passed the world has changed immensely; some of these changes have been good, but not all of them. Women no longer are looked down upon and treated like they are not as good as men. They can go out and get jobs and work just as men do. Technology has allowed for easy communication for people all over the world and the internet has opened up an endless world of opportunities, like communication, shopping, and research. It also has to be taken into consideration that some of these things have caused parents to work more, families to spend less time together, and more marriages to end in divorce. There are also more kids getting arrested and taking their own lives. Memes are ideas, fashions, trends, inventions that are ever changing. They are similar to genes because with natural selection certain genes try and survive, it is always a goal for a meme to be passes along throughout a culture and become popular.
28) The nature and nurture of gender: With gender nurture builds off of nature. All humans have some things in common, like sweating, bleeding then healing if they get cut, and needing food and water to live. The main difference between men and women is one chromosome, women have XX and men have XY, one little thing creates a big difference in a person. Once a person has their gender they have a typical role that their gender follows. Men are generally the ones to like cars and sports, while women generally like to shop and do their nails. The way someone is raised effects how masculine or feminine that person is. If at a young age a parent only lets their little girl play with dolls and wear dresses, there is a high chance that she will be more feminine then a girl who is raised wearing jeans and a t-shirt and playing with trains more then dolls. Children also learn what is socially acceptable for their gender by being around other people their age. If a boy does not act masculine enough in school the other boys may make fun of him, which in turn may make him try and act less feminine.
**1-7 Sarah
**8-14 Kelly
**15-21 Briana
**22-28 Dani
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